France, History Of, France since 1815

Volumes 2 and 3 of the already mentioned Alfred Cobban, A History of Modern France, 3 vol. (1957 - 62, reprinted 1969), present the period from the First Empire to the Republics in a sophisticated synthesis; and Gordon Wright, France in Modern Times: From the Enlightenment to the Present, 4th ed. (1987), is an interpretive general survey. Appropriate parts of the massive collective work Histoire �conomique et sociale de la France, 4 vol. in 8 (1970 - 82), Fernand Braudel and Ernest Labrousse (eds.), provide coverage by some of the best French experts of economic and social developments up to the last quarter of the 20th century. Surveys of special topics on all or most of the period since 1815 include Ren� R�mond, The Right Wing in France from 1815 to De Gaulle, 2nd ed. (1969; originally published in French, 3rd ed., 1968; rev. French ed., 1982), tracing change and continuity of the political right; G�rard Cholvy and Yves-Marie Hilaire, Histoire religieuse de la France contemporaine, 3 vol. (1985 - 88), an analysis of the role of various religions; and Raoul Girardet, La Soci�t� militaire dans la France contemporaine, 1815 - 1939 (1953), on the changing role and composition of the military corps. The role of France in world affairs is emphasized in Pierre Renouvin, Le XIXe, 2 vol. (1954 - 55), on the developments of the 19th century, part of the series �Histoire des relations internationales.� Fran�ois Caron, An Economic History of Modern France, trans. from French (1979, reissued 1983), revises older views about France's rate of growth; Theodore Zeldin, France, 1848 - 1945, 2 vol. (1973 - 77), explores modern French society, stressing its complexity and continuity; and Eugen Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France (1976), argues that a sense of nationhood came to rural France only in the late 19th century. Period studies include Guillaume de Bertier de Sauvigny, The Bourbon Restoration (1966, originally published in French, 1955), the standard work on the period 1815 - 1830; David H. Pinkney, Decisive Years in France, 1840 - 1847 (1986), arguing that France changed fundamentally in these years; Roger Price, The French Second Republic: A Social History (1972), a thoughtful reevaluation; Ted W. Margadant, French Peasants in Revolt: The Insurrection of 1851 (1979), suggesting that leftist views remained vigorous after 1848; J.P.T. Bury, Napol�on III and the Second Empire (1964), a well-informed analysis; Michael Howard, The Franco-Prussian War: The German Invasion of France, 1870 - 1871 (1961, reissued 1981), a model study; and Stewart Edwards, The Paris Commune, 1871 (1971), a balanced reevaluation. Roger Shattuck, The Banquet Years: The Origins of the Avant Garde in France, 1885 to World War I, rev. ed. (1968, reissued 1984), is a brilliant survey of Parisian culture of the period; and Charles Rearick, Pleasures of the Belle Epoque: Entertainment and Festivity in Turn-of-the-Century France (1985), describes the high life in Monmartre. D.W. Brogan, France Under the Republic: The Development of Modern France, 1870 - 1939 (1940, reprinted 1974), is a classic account; Jacques Chastenet, Histoire de la Troisi�me R�publique, 7 vol. (1952 - 63, reissued in 4 vol., 1974), remains the most detailed treatment of the period; David Thomson, Democracy in France Since 1870, 5th ed. (1969), offers a penetrating study of political and social aspects; and Jean-Denis Bredin, The Affair: The Case of Alfred Dreyfus (1986; originally published in French, 1983), provides a highly readable account of the great crisis. For the 20th century, see Eugen Weber, Action Fran�aise: Royalism and Reaction in Twentieth Century France (1962), a full analysis of this right-wing movement; Zeev Sternhell, La Droite R�volutionnaire, 1885 - 1914: les origines fran�aises du fascisme (1978, reprinted 1984), a controversial argument that fascism was born in France; Marc Ferro, The Great War, 1914 - 1918 (1973, reissued 1987; originally published in French, 1969), a good synthesis; Robert O. Paxton, Vichy France: Old Guard and New Order, 1940 - 1944 (1972, reissued 1982), a critical analysis of the P�tain regime; Jean-Baptiste Duroselle, La D�cadence, 1932 - 1939, 3rd rev. ed. (1985), and L'Ab�me: 1939 - 1945, 2nd rev. ed. (1986), two volumes of devastating analysis of French foreign policy before and during World War II; Charles de Gaulle, War Memoirs, 5 vol. (1955 - 60; originally published in French, 1954 - 59), and Memoirs of Hope: Renewal and Endeavor (1971; originally published in French, 2 vol., 1970 - 71), indispensable for an understanding of the Gaullist era; Jean Lacouture, Charles de Gaulle, 3 vol. (1984 - 86), a full and perceptive biography; Philip M. Williams, Crisis and Compromise: Politics in the Fourth Republic, 3rd ed. (1964, reissued 1972), an excellent account of that system of government; Pierre Viansson-Pont�, Histoire de la r�publique gaullienne, 2 vol. (1970 - 71, reissued in 1 vol., 1984), on the Fifth Republic's Gaullist phase; Stanley Hoffmann et al., In Search of France (1963), an analysis of postwar France; George Ross, Stanley Hoffmann, and Sylvia Malzacher (eds.), The Mitterrand Experiment: Continuity and Change in Modern France (1987), a study of the socialist years; and Alfred Grosser, Affaires ext�rieures: la politique de la France, 1944 - 1989 (1989), a penetrating analysis of postwar France's role in the world.

Powers, Hiram

Powers first studied with Frederick Eckstein about 1828. Around 1829 he worked as a general assistant and artist in a wax museum in Cincinnati, Ohio, where his ingenious

Chi-hsi

Pinyin �Jixi, � city in southeastern Heilungkiang Province (sheng), China. Located on the upper Mu-leng Ho (river), it is in a mountainous area rich in timber and in various minerals, including coal, iron, oil shale, graphite, fluorite, and limestone. Chi-hsi is, however, predominantly a coal-mining city, with some of the largest and best equipped coal mines in China. The coal is of high quality

Van Depoele, Charles Joseph

After immigrating to the United States in 1869, Van Depoele became a successful manufacturer of church furniture and then began to pursue his interest in electricity. In addition to his notable

Arnold, Matthew

English Victorian poet and literary and social critic, noted especially for his classical attacks on the contemporary tastes and manners of the �Barbarians� (the aristocracy), the �Philistines� (the commercial middle class), and the �Populace.� He became the apostle of �culture� in such works as Culture and Anarchy (1869).

Mascagni, Pietro

Mascagni studied at the conservatory at Milan, but, unable to submit to the discipline of his master, Amilcare Ponchielli, he left to join a traveling

Abengourou

Town, eastern C�te d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast), on the road from Abidjan (the national capital) to Ghana. The major trading centre for a productive forest region, it is also the residence of the Anyi (Agni) paramount chief, who is the present king of Ind�ni� (an Anyi kingdom founded in the mid-18th century). The king's official residence (built 1882) is decorated with Ind�ni� relics and tapestries.

P'eng-hu Islands

P'eng-hu also spelled �Penghu�, Chinese (Wade-Giles) �P'eng-hu Ch'�n-tao�, or �P'eng-hu Lieh-tao�conventional �Pescadores� archipelago and hsien (county) of Taiwan, consisting of about 64 small islands, approximately 30 miles (50 km) west of the coast of Taiwan, from which it is separated by the P'eng-hu Channel. Of volcanic origin, many of the islands consist of weathered basalt, and they are surrounded by coral reefs. The islands are low-lying, most rising only about 100 - 130 feet (30 - 40 m) above sea level. The highest

Pyramids, Battle Of The

(July 21, 1798), military engagement in which Napoleon Bonaparte invented his one significant contribution to tactics, the massive divisional square; it was fought during his Egyptian campaign near Embabeh (Imbabah), on the west bank of the Nile River. Napoleon's 25,000-man Army of Egypt faced perhaps 40,000 Egyptians led by Murad Bey. The Egyptians were concentrated near Embabeh, with the

Torah

In Judaism, in the broadest sense the substance of divine revelation to Israel, the Jewish people: God's revealed teaching or guidance for mankind. The meaning of �Torah� is often restricted to signify the first five books of the Old Testament, also called the Law or the Pentateuch. These are the books traditionally ascribed to Moses, the recipient of the original revelation

Arts, East Asian, Painting and calligraphy

Settled conditions and a tolerant atmosphere helped to make the Northern Sung a period of great achievement in landscape painting. Li Ch'eng, a follower of Ching Hao who lived a few years into the Sung, was a scholar who defined the soft, billowing earthen formations of the northeastern Chinese terrain with �cloudlike� texture, interior layers of graded ink wash bounded

Anthemion

Design consisting of a number of radiating petals, developed by the ancient Greeks from the Egyptian and Asiatic form known as the honeysuckle or lotus palmette. The anthemion was used widely by the Greeks and Romans to embellish various parts of ancient buildings. The Greeks originally decorated only pottery with the motif, but they soon adapted it to ornament

Houston, Whitney

The daughter of Emily (�Cissy�) Houston - whose vocal group, the Sweet Inspirations, sang backup for Aretha Franklin - and the cousin of singer Dionne Warwick, Whitney Houston began singing in church as a child. While still

Middlesex

County, east-central New Jersey, U.S., bounded by the Millstone River to the southwest, the Raritan River to the northwest, the Rahway River to the northeast, and Raritan Bay to the east. It consists largely of a coastal lowland. Other bodies of water include Carnegie and Farrington lakes and the South River. Forested areas contain oak and hickory. Among the recreational

Ahenobarbus, Lucius Domitius

After the powerful generals Julius Caesar, Gnaeus Pompey, and Marcus Licinius Crassus formed an unofficial ruling triumvirate in 60 BC, Ahenobarbus repeatedly resisted their designs. As candidate for the consulate of 55, he

Burdigalian Stage

In France the Burdigalian Stage is represented by rocks, especially shell beds, produced by a continuing transgression

Abbey, Edward

The son of a Pennsylvania farmer, Abbey earned a B.A. (1951) and an M.A. (1956) at the University of New Mexico. He subsequently worked as a park ranger and fire lookout for the National Park Service in the Southwest,

Aesthetics, China

Confucius (551 - 479 BC) emphasized the role of aesthetic enjoyment in moral and political education, and, like his near contemporary Plato, was suspicious of the power of art to awaken frenzied and distracted feelings. Music must be stately and dignified, contributing to the inner harmony that is the foundation of good behaviour, and all art is at its noblest when incorporated

La Fontaine, Jean De

Poet whose Fables rank among the greatest masterpieces of French literature.

Jammu And Kashmir, The foothills

The foothills of the Himalayas, rising from about 2,000 to 7,000 feet (600 to 2,100 metres), form outer and inner zones. The outer zone consists of sandstones, clays, silts, and conglomerates, influenced by Himalayan folding movements and eroded to form long ridges and valleys (duns). The inner zone consists of more massive sedimentary rock, including red sandstones of Miocene age (about 5.3 to

Rowland, Henry Augustus

In 1872 Rowland became an instructor of physics at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute,

Tata

Oasis, southwestern Morocco. Situated in an arid region at the extreme northwestern edge of the Sahara, Tata oasis is located in a canyon watered by three wadis descending from Mount Bani, an outlier of the Anti-Atlas mountains. The oasis contains about 30 ksars (fortified villages) with houses built out of pink clay. The inhabitants of the region include the Shluh Berbers,

Ekkehard I The Elder

Of noble birth, Ekkehard was educated at the Benedictine monastery of Sankt Gallen (St. Gall) in Switzerland, then one of Europe's greatest centres

Italian Confederation Of Workers' Unions

Italian� Confederazione Italiana dei Sindacati Lavoratori �(CISL), � Italy's second largest trade union federation. The CISL was formed in 1950 by the merger of the Free General Italian Confederation of Labour (Libera Confederazione Generale Italiana dei Lavoratori) and the Italian Federation of Labour (Federazione Italiana del Lavoro). From its founding it had strong ties with Roman Catholics and Christian Democrats. It vigorously

Termez

City and administrative centre of Surkhandarya oblast (province), Uzbekistan, and a port of the Amu Darya (river) on the frontier of Afghanistan. The ancient town of Termez, a little to the north, flourished in the 1st century BC and was finally destroyed at the end of the 17th century AD. The present city originated as a Russian fort built in 1897 beside the small settlement of Pattagissar.

Termez

City and administrative centre of Surkhandarya oblast (province), Uzbekistan, and a port of the Amu Darya (river) on the frontier of Afghanistan. The ancient town of Termez, a little to the north, flourished in the 1st century BC and was finally destroyed at the end of the 17th century AD. The present city originated as a Russian fort built in 1897 beside the small settlement of Pattagissar.

Alabama, Industry

Industrial development in Alabama has long been based on the iron and steel industry of Birmingham, the development of which was facilitated by accessible deposits of iron ore, coal, and limestone. Other minerals include the state's well-known white marble. Oil production in commercial quantities dates from 1944, and there are a number of wells in the coastal regions.

Gravelines

Flemish �Gravelinghe� seaport town of northern France, in the d�partement of Nord and the arrondissement of Dunkirk. It is situated midway between Dunkirk and Calais, near the mouth of the Aa River. The canalization of the Aa by the Count of Flanders in about the mid-12th century led to the foundation of Gravelines (grave-linghe, meaning �count's canal�). It became the site of an important citadel,

Pytheas

Sailing from the Mediterranean Sea into the Atlantic, Pytheas stopped at the Phoenician city of

Tippecanoe River

River rising in Tippecanoe Lake in Kosciusko county, northern Indiana, U.S. The river flows 166 miles (267 km) generally southwest into the Wabash River north of Lafayette. Tippecanoe is probably derived from the Miami Indian name for buffalo fish. Between the towns of Buffalo and Brookston on the river's lower course, Lakes Shafer and Freeman are impounded by power dams. At